Achievements in Zoology
1665 Coined the term cell, Robert Hooke.
1772 Observed free cells in bacteria, protozoans etc., A.V. Leeuwenhoek.
1824 Animals and plants are aggregate of cells, Rene Dutrochet.
1831 Round shaped nucleus, Robert Brown.
1839 Applied cell theory of animals, T. Schwann.
1861 Defined cells as living substance, Schutze.
1882 Cell division in animals, W. Fleming.
1886 Discovered cytochromes, Mac Munn.
1902 Described sex chromosomes, Mc. Clung
Selected accomplishment in the Field of Physiology or Medicine
1901 Development of serum therapy for diphtheria : Emil A. von Behring (Germany).
1902 Studied cause and transmission of malaria : Sir Ronald Ross (England).
1905 Cultivation of the tubercle bacillus : Robert Koch (Germany).
1908 Theories on the development of immunity : Paul Ehrlich (Germany). Description of phagocytosis : Elie Metchnikoff [France (USSR)].
1913 Investigations on anaphylaxis : Charles R. Richet (France).
1928 Cause and transmission of epidemic typhus : Charles J.H. Nicolie (France).
1939 Discovery of chemotherapeutic effects of prontosil : Gerhard Domagk (Germany).
1945 Discovery of penicillin : Sir Alexander Flemming (England).
1952 Discovery of streptomycin : Selman A. Waksman (U.S.A.)
1953 Studied the metabolism of carbohydrates in cells : Fritz A. Lipman [U.S.A. (Germany)]
1954 Cultivation of polio viruses in cell culture : Hans Adolph Krebs [England (Germany)], John F. Enders (U.S.A.), Thomas H. Weller (U.S.A.), Frederick C. Robbins (U.S.A.)
1957 Studies on antihistamines : D. Bovet (Switzerland).
1958 Studies on the biochemistry of microbial genetics : Joshua Lederberg (U.S.A.)
1959 Mechanism of synthesis of DNA and RNA : George W. Beadle (U.S.A.), Severo Ochoa [U.S.A. (Spain)].
1960 Studies on immunologic tolerance : Arthus Kornberg (U.S.A.), Sir F. Macfarlane (Australia).
1962 Determination of the structure of DNA : Burnet, Peter Brain Mcdawar [England (Brazil), James D. Watson (U.S.A.).
1965 Regulation of gene activity in the cell : Francis H.C.Crick (England), Maurice H.F. Wilkins, (England), Francois Jacob : (France).
1968 Discovery of the genetic codes for amino acids : Jacques Monad : (France), Robert Holley (U.S.A.), Hargobind Khorana [U.S.A. (India)], Marshall W. (U.S.A.).
1969 Studies on the mechanism of viral infection of cells : Nirenberg : Max Delbruck [U.S.A. (Germany)].
1972 Elucidation of the nature and structure of antibody molecules : Alfred D. Hershey (U.S.A.), Salvadore, E. Luria [U.S.A. (Italy)], Gerald M. Edelman (U.S.A.).
1975 Studies on the transformation of cells by tumor viruses : Rodney R. Porter (U.K.), David Baltimore (U.S.A.)
1976 Discovery of the Australia antigen : Howard Temin (U.S.A.), Renato Dulbecco [U.S.A. (Italy), Baruch Blumberg (U.S.A.)].
1977 Development of the radio-immunoassay procedure : Roslayn Yalow (U.S.A.).
Synthesis of peptide hormones : Roger C.L. Guillemin [U.S.A. (France)].
1978 Studies on restriction enzymes : Andrew V. Sehally [U.S.A. (Polland)], Daniel Nathans (U.S.A.).
1980 Discovery of the histo-compatibility antigens used in tissue typing : Hamilton Smith (U.S.A.), Wemer Arber (Switzerland), Baruj Benacerraf (U.S.A.), George, D. Snell (U.S.A.).
1983 Studies on transposable gentic elements : Jean Dausset (France), Barbara Mc-Clintock (U.S.A.).
1984 Development of monoclonal antibody technique : Cesar Milstein [U.K. (Argentina)].
Research in immunology : Georges J.F. Kohler : [Switzerland (Germany)], Niels K. Jerne [Switzerland (Denmark)].
1987 Genetic principle for generation of antibody diversity : Susumu Tonegawa (Japan).
About Human Body
Total number of bones in human body : 206
Longest bone : Femur (Thigh bone)
Smallest bone : Stapes (Middle ear)
Dental formula—
2, 1, 2, 3
(Adult) ¾¾¾¾ = 32 Permanent 2, 1, 2, 3
teeth
2, 1, 2, 0
(Child) ¾¾¾¾ = 20 Milk teeth
2, 1, 2, 0
Total number of muscles in body : 639
Largest muscle : Gluteus maximum (Buttock muscle)
Smallest Muscle : Stapedius
Longest muscle : Sartorius
Total amount of blood in body : 5 to 6 litres (in 70 kg man—1/15 of body weight).
Life span of RBC : 120 days
Number of RBCs : 5000,00/cu mm in male
—4500,000/cu mm in female
Total RBCs in an average sized person : 35 trillion
Average diameter of RBC : 7.7 microns
Mean thickness of RBC : 1.9 microns
Number of WBCs : 5,000-10,000/ cu mm
Average number of WBCs : 6,000/cu mm
Total haemoglobin content in body : 1000 g
Average amount of haemoglobin : 14-15 g/100 ml of blood
Blood clotting time : 5-6 minutes
Blood groups : A, B, AB and O
Heart beats : 72 per minute (normal)
Universal blood donor : Blood group O
Universal blood recipient : Blood group AB
ESR (normal erythrocyte sedimentation rate) : 4-10 mm/hour
Blood discharge from heart : 4-5 litres/minute
Weight of heart : 300 g in male; 250 g in female
Normal blood pressure : 120/80 mn Hg
Largest artery : Abdominal aorta
Largest vein : Inferior vena cava
Normal pulse rate in adult : Male 67-72/minute; Female 72-80/minute
Normal pulse rate
At birth : 140/minure
At 1 year age : 120/minute
At 10 years age : 90/minute
For adults : 70/minute
Weight of brain : 1424 g
Length of spinal cord : Average 42-45 cm
Number of spinal nerves : 31 pairs
Number of cranial nerves : 12 pairs
Longest nerve : Sciatic
Length of alimentary canal : 9 metres
Length of small intestine : 7 metres (22.5 feet)
Largest gland : Liver
Weight of liver : 1500 g
Weight of pancreas : 65-160 g
Size of kidney : 11-12 cm long, 5-7 cm wide, 3 cm thick
Length of uriniferous tubule : 35-50 mm
Amount of urine passed in a day : 100-1800 ml
Longest cell in body : Nerve cell
Largest endocrine gland : Thyroid
Thinnest skin : Conjunctiva (Eyelid)
Normal body temperature : 98.4OF (37oC)
Oxygen cosumption : 0.2 ml/g body weight/h
Normal breathing rate :
In adult 14-18/minute
At birth : 40-60/minute
At 5 years age : 24-26/minute
At 15 years age : 20-22/minute
BMR (Basal metabolic rate) : 1000-2000 kcal/day in men—1000-1700 kcal/day in women
BMR in terms of calories : 1500-1800 cal/day
BMR in terms of body weight : 1 cal/kg/hour
BMR in terms of body surface : 40 cal/sq. m/hour
Interregnum between two menstruation cycles in woman : 28 days
Time of puberty in girl : 12-14 years of age.
Age of menopause (in woman) : 45-55 years
Eggs produced at one time : One
Placenta : Chorio-allantoic
Foetal membranes : Chorion, allantois, amnion, yolk sacs
Gestation period : 9 months (253-266 days)
Important Human Diseases
The followings are the most common and important human diseases :
Skin Diseases
1. Acne (Acne vulgaris)
2. Boils (Carbuncles)
3. Impetigo : Contagious disease; causes itching.
4. Eczema (Atopic dermatitis) : inflammatory.
5. Psoriasis : Inflammatory.
6. Baldness (Alopecia)
7. Vitiligo (Leukoderma)
8. Scabies (The itch) : Contagious.
Disorders of Skeletal Structures
1. Back pain and backache
2. Fibrositis (Muscular rheumatism)
3. Osteomyelitis
4. Osteoporosis
5. Arthritis
6. Synositis
7. Osteoarthritis
Diseases of Eye
1. Cataract-Degeneration of eye lens
2. Conjunctivitis
3. Glaucoma
4. Squint (Strabismus)
5. Trachoma : Infectious.
Diseases of Ear, Nose and Throat
1. Deafness
2. Boil in the ear
2. Otomycosis
4. Sinusitis
5. Nosebleed (Epistaxis)
6. Tonsils
Diseases of Respiratory Organs
1. Asthma (Bronchial asthma)
2. Bronchitis
3. Abscess of the lung—Develop in complicated pneumonia.
4. Pneumonia : Viral.
5. Pulmonary Oedema : Waterlogging.
6. Tuberculosis
Diseases of Digestive Tract
1. Abscess of tooth
2. Mumps : Infectious disease.
3. Gastritis : Inflammatory.
4. Peptic ulcer (Gatric ulcer) : Due to hyperacidity.
5. Appendicitis
6. Colitis
7. Diarrhoea
8. Hernia (Rupture)
9. Rectal fistulas
Diseases of Bile Passages, Liver and Pancreas
1. Gall stone (Cholelithiasis).
2. Hepatitis : Viral : contamination.
3. Cirrhosis
4. Acute pancreatitis
5. Diabetes mellitus
Nutritional Diseases
1. Pellagra : Niacin (Vitamin B) deficiency.
2. Beri-beri : Vitamin B deficiency
3. Scurvy : Vitamin C deficiency.
4. Osteomalacia and Rickets : Vitamin D deficiency.
5. Diabetes mellutus
6. Hypoglycemia (Low blood sugar)
Disease of Intestine through Parasites
1. Amoebic dysentery (Amoebiasis)
2. Ascariasis
3. Ancylostomiasis
4. Trichuriasis
Diseases of Urinary System
1. Bladder stone Vesicle culculi)
2. Uremia
3. Nephritis
4. Kidney stones (Renal calculi)
5. Nephrosis (Nephrotic syndrome)
Diseases of Sex Organs
1. Hydrocele : Accumulation of water.
2. Impotency
3. Urethritis (inflammation of the urethra).
4. Breast cancer
5. Acute mastitis
6. Fibromyomas
Mental and Nervous Disorders
1. Abscess of the brain : Infectious.
2. Cerebral palsy (Little’s disease)
3. Encephalitis
4. Meningitis (Tuberculous)
5. Mongolism
6. Multiple sclerosis
7. Neuritis
8. Paralysis
9. Tumors of the brain
Endocrine Gland Diseases
1. Acromegaly and gigantism
2. Diabetes insipidus
3. Goitre : Deficiency of thyroxin.
4. Myxoedema
Infectious Diseases
1. Chicken pox (Varicella)
2. Cholera
3. Diphtheria : Contagious.
4. Bacillary dysentery : Bacterial.
5. German measles (Rubella) : Viral.
6. Influenza : Contagious.
7. Measles (Rubella) : Viral.
8. Meningitis : Mainly viral.
9. Mumps : Contagious : Viral.
10. Poliomyelitis (Infantile paralysis)
11. Rabies (Hydrophobia)
12. Rheumatic fever
13. Small pox (Variola) : Communicable.
14. Tetanus (Lock jaw)
15. Typhoid fever : Bacterial.
Venereal infectious Diseases
1. Gonorrhoea
2. Syphilis (Lues venerea)
Some Ailments
1. African sleeping sickness (Trypanosomiasis)
2. Chages diseases (Trypanosomiasis)
3. Cholera
4. Dengue (Breakbone fever)
5. Elephantiasis
6. Kala azar
7. Leishmaniasis
8. Leprosy (Mansen’s disease)
9. Malaria
10. Plague
Heart, Blood and Blood Vessel Diseases
1. Heart diseases
2. Arteriosclerosis (Hardening of the arteies)
3. High blood pressure (Hypertension)
4. Anaemia
5. Leukaemia Blood cancer
Hereditary Diseases
1. Colour blindness
2. Down’s syndrome
3. Turner’s syndrome
4. Criminal syndrome
5. Haemophilia
6. Albinism
7. Epidermolysis
8. Schizophrenia
9. Alkaptonuria
10. Haemolytic jaundice
11. Thalassaemia-Serious hereditary blood disorder.
Superlatives in non-chordates
Largest Protozoan : Pelomyna plustris : 1.4 cm
Smallest Protozoan : Mycoplasma : 0.000004 inch
Longest Living Protozoa : Euglina gracilis : 20 years
Fastest Reproducing Protozoan : Glaucoma : 6 generations in 24 hrs.
Largest Poriferan : Spheciospongia vesparium : 3.5 feet
Tallest Poriferan : Poterion patera : 4 feet
Smallest Porifera : Leucosolenia blanca : 11 inches
Largest Jelly fish : Cyanea blanca
Longest Flatworm : Taenia solium : 8 metres
Largest Earthworm : Microchaetus sappi
Smallest Annelid : Chaetogaster annandale
Most Primitive Annelid : Polygordius (Archianelid)
Largest Crab : Pseudocarsinus gigas
Smallest Crustacean : Allonella : 0.025 cm
Largest Ant : Dinoponera grandis : 3.25 mm
Largest Grasshopper : Sillicoferg grandis : Wing span : 100 inches.
Largest Butterfly : Troides victoriae
Fastest Flying Insect : Cephenymyial pratti : 818 miles/hrs.
Loudest Insect : Cicada : Sound produced can be heard from 4 km
Largest Spider : Theraphosa sp.
Smallest Spier : Lectodectus meatans
Longest Centipede : Scolopendra marclitans
Heaviest Insect : Goliathus goliathus (Goliath beetle)
Most Primitive Arthropod : Peripatus : 5 cm
Largest Octopus : Octopus apollyon
Smallest Mollusc : Ammonincera rota : 0.02 inch
Largest Snail : Tethys
Largest Molluscan Shell : Tridacna derasa
Largest Eye : Architeuthis (Giant squid) = 15″ dia.
Slowest Moving Snail : Helix aspersa (Garden slug)
Smallest Starfish : Midgardia xanderos
Largest Invertebrate Animal : Architeuthsi (Giant Squid) : Weight = 5 tonnes, Size = 6 metres
Most Primitive Animal : Euglena : 60 m
Smallest Animal : Plasmodium (Malaria parasite) : 10 m
Smallest Growth : Deep sea clam : It grows to 8 mm in 100 years
Superlatives in Chordates
Largest Fish : Rhineodon (whale shark) : Weight = 90,000 mounds, Size = 60 feet
Smallest Fish : Pandaka (Goby fish) : Size = 8-10 mm
Most Poisonous Fish : Stone fish
Most Primitive (Fossil) Fish : Climatius
Flying Fish : Exocoetus : Size =40 mm
Most Powerful Electric Fish : Torpedo (Electric ray) : Produces electric shocks of 600 volts
Largest Frog : Rana golisath : Size = 15 inches
Largest Tree Frog : Hyla vasta.
Largest Toad : Bufo marinus (marine toad)
Largest Lizard : Varanus of Indonesia
Poisonous Lizard : Heloderma (Gilamonster reptile)
Flying Lizard : Draco—Lateral skin fold, plagium helps in gliding
Desert Lizard : Phrynosoma (Homed toad, spiny lizard) found in USA
Largest Living Lizard : Varanus komodoensis (Foroclous dragon) : Found in Malaya. Archipelogo : Weight nearly 100 kg
Colour Changing Lizard : Chameleon (Girgit) : Long tail, head having hood.
Largest Snake : Python reliculatus (Ajgar)
Shortest Snake : Leptotyphlops bilineata (Thread snake)
Longest Poisonous Snake : Najahannah (King cobra)
Most Poisonous Snake : Hydrophisbelcheri (Sea snake)
Double Headed Snake : Eryx joni (Sand boa) : Falsely called double headed
Longest Fangs : Found in Bitis gobonica (Viper snake) : tropical Africa, 1.97 inches
Largest Reptile : Crocodylus porosus
Smallest Reptile : Sphaerodactylus partinopion (Grecho)
Largest Living Reptile : Crocodylus (Marine crocodile) : Weight = 525 kg
Living Fossil Reptile : Sphenodon : Found in New Zealand
Largest Dinosaur : Brontosaurus : Lived in mesozoic age : 25 m long and 6 m high
Largest Bird : Struthio camelus (North Africa Ostrich) : Flightless bird, 275 cm in height, weight = 300 pounds, running speed = 80 km/h
Most Primitive Fossil Bird : Archaeopteryx
Fastest Flying Birds : Ducks and geese = 80 mph
Most Air-borne Bird : Apus apus (Common swift) 9 months in air in a year
Slowest Flying Bird : Scolopax minor (American woodcock) : 5 mph
Longest Flying Bird : Stema paradisaea (Arctic tem) : covers 22,530 km in migration
Highest Bird Flier : Cygnus cygnus (Whooper swans bifd) : 27,000 feet
Smallest Bird Flier : Mellisugar helenae (Bee humming bird) : 5.5 cm in total length
Heaviest Bird of Prey : Vulture gryphus
Largest Sea Bird : Diomedea epomorphoic (Royal albatross) Wing span 80-125 inches
Fastest Swimmer Bird : Pygoscelis papua (Gentoo Penguin)
Deepest Diver bird : Aptenodytes forsteri (Emperor penguin)
Largest Land Animal : Loxodonta africana (African elephant) : Weight = 7 tonnes
Largest Mammal : Balaenoptera musculus (Blue whale) Size = 35 m, Weight = 209 tonnes
Smallest Mammal : Suncus ctruscus (Pigmy shrew) : Weight = 5 g
Fastest Mammal : Actinonyxjubatus (Cheetah of Africa) : Speed = 60-63 mph
Tallest Mammal : Giraffa camelopardalis (Giraffe of Africa)
Most Primitive Mammal : Echidna (Prototherian)
Rarest Animal : Dasogale fontoynonti (Hedgehog of East Madagascar)
Commonest Mammal : Homo sapiens (Man)
Largest Lived Animal : Tortoise : About 150 years
Largest Ape : Gorilla : Southwest Uganda : Weight = 250 kg, size = 1.8 m
Most Primitive Placental : Manis (Scaly anteater)
Longest Gestation Period : Salamandra atra (Viviparous amphibian) : 36 months
Largest Cell : Nerve cell in Mammals : 3.5 feet
Largest Teeth : Elephant tusks, upper incisors
Largest Human Muscle : Glutem maximus (Hip muscle).
Largest Human Vein : Inferior vena cava
Largest Bone in Man : Femur 27.5 inches in a 6 feet tall man
Smallest Muscle in Man : Stapedius (Muscle of middle ear)
Highest I.Q. in Man : 210 in a Korean boy of 4 years
Highest National I.Q. : 106.6 in Japan.
Gestation Periods in Some Animals
Animal Gestation Period
(in days)
1. Elephant 624
2. Rhino 600-650 (longest)
3. Giraffe 400-480
4. Camel 400
5. Ass 365
6. Whale 330-365
7. Horse 330
8. Dog fish 300
9. Cow 284
10. Gorilla 270
11. Man (Human) 253-266
12. Chimpanzee 250
13. Lemur 180
14. Monkey (Rhesus) 150-170
15. Tiger 155
16. Goat 151
17. Sheep 151
18. Lion 105-115
19. Pig 114
20. Guinea pig 62-70
21. Cat 63
22. Dog 63
23. Fox 51-63
24. Kangaroo 40
25. Squirrel 30-40
26. Rabbit 28-30
27. Rat 21
28. Mouse 19-20
29. Opossum 12-13
Microscopy Units
Following units are used for size measurement in microscopy.
1 meter (m) = 100 centimetres (m)
1 mm = 10–6 m.
= 10–4 cm = 103 nanometres (nm)
1 cm = 10 mm (millimetres)
1 nm = 10–6 m
= 10–7 cm = 10 Angstroms (Å)
1 mm = 10–3 m = 103 micrometres (mm)
1 Å = 10–10 m = 10– 8 cm = 10–1 nm.
Angstrom is the unit of wave length named after J. Angstrom. Biologist have abandoned the use of Angstrom.
Speed of Animals
Animal Speed km/hour
Cheetah 112
Black Buck 95
Mangolian Stag 90
Lion 88
Deer 75
Hare 75
Fox 75
Animal Speed km/hour
Zebra 64
Grey hound 64
Buffalo 55
Rabbit 55
Wolf 45
Elephant 35
Sheep 25
Longevity of some Living beings
Name Life Span
May fly 1 day
Monkey 26 years
Cat 35 to 40 years
Elephant 65 years
Man 100 years
Tortoise 200 years
Dog 20 to 30 years
Horse 60 years
Eagle 90 years
Parrot 140 years
Hippopotamus 41 years
Rhinoceros 40 years
Name Life Span
Bear 35 years
White Pelicon 51 years
Starling 17
Canary 22 years
Sparrow 23 years
Cardinal 30 years
Carp (Fish) 25 years
Cat fish 60 years
Eel 50 years
Famous Scientists
Year Name Contributions
1665 Jan Swammardam Described a cell (RBC of frog).
1665 Robert Hooke Observed Cells in cork tissue, coined the term Cell.
1674 Anton Van Leeu- Studied blood
wenhoek cells, spermatozoa, protozoans and micro-organisms.
1745 Charles Bonnet Discovered Natural partheno genesis.
1824 Rene Dutrochet Suggested that all plants and animals are aggregates of glubular cells.
1824 P. Prevost and Described cell
J.B.A. Dumas division for the first time by studying cleavage of frog’s egg.
1826 Turpin Reported occurrence of cell division.
1831 Robert Brown Described the presence of nucleus in plant cells.
1832 Dumortir Studied cell division in algae.
1835 Feliux Dujardin Described protoplasm under the heading sarcode.
1838 H. Von Mohl Described cell division in animals.
1838 M. J. Schleiden Described nucleolus, which was first observed by F. Fontana in 1781.
1838 M.J. Schieiden Formulated ‘cell theory’ along with Schwann.
1839 T. Schwann Applied cell theory to animals.
1840 J.E. Purkinje Provided the name protoplasm to the living material.
1845 A. Dome Studied spermatozoa and used photomicroscopy for the first time.
1846 Hugo Von Mohl Described importance of protoplasm in the cell and cellular activities and provided the name protoplasm along with Purkinje.
1848 W. Hofmeiser Drawn figure of chromosomes of the pollen mother cells of Tradescantia and described nuclear division.
1855 R. Virchow Stated that all cells arise from the pre-existing cells.
1861 Schultze Used haematoxylin for staining tissue cells.
1866 E. Haeckel Named plastids.
1867 L. St. George Described Golgi appartatus.
1870 W. His Developed microtome for cutting sections of tissue for cell study. Preservation of tissue dates back to 1663 when Boyte used alcohol as a preservative.
1871 R. Meisher Separated nucleo-proteins from the pus cells and named them nuc-leic acids.
1871 Anion Schneider Described chromosomes as nuclear filaments
1876 O. Hertwig Demonstrated that fertilization was the fusion of two cells.
1875 Van Benden Observed the centriole.
1876 L. Pasteur Discovered anae-robic release of energy from cells in yeast and moulds.
1877 E. Abbe Discovered the oil immersion objective.
1879 H. Fol Observed the penetration of sperm in an ovum.
1879 W. Flemming Introduced the term chromatin and described the splitting of chromosomes.
1882 W. Flemming Described cell di vision ‘mitosis’ in animal cells and suggested correlation between nucleic acid and chromain.
1882 W. Pfiftzner Discovered chromomeres on the chromosomes.
1882 F. Strasburger Described cell division in plant cells and introduced the terms cytoplasm and nucleoplasm.
1883 Schimper Named chloroplasts to the green bodies of the cells which were described by Sach (1865) and were called green granules by Comparratii (1871).
1883 W. Roux Proposed that chromosomes contain hereditary units.
1883 E. Van Benden Demonstrated that the number of chromosomes is reduced to half during gamete formation.
1883 Metschnikoff Observed and named phagocytosis in cells.
O. Hertwig and Proposed the role
E. Strasburger of nucleus in here-
R. Altmann dity. Studied mitochondrial and suggested their role in respiration.
1886 C.A. MacMunn Studied mitochondria and suggested their role in respiration.
1887 Van Benden Discovered centriole.
1888 Waldeyer Introduced the term chromosome.
1892 A. Weismann Proposed ‘germ-plasm theory’.
1892 T. Boveri Described spermatogenesis and oogenesis is Ascaris.
1897 Graier Named and described ergastoplasm.
1897 B. Benda Introduced the term ‘mitochondrion’.
1898 C. Golgi Described golgi complex in the nerve cells of owl.
1990 J. Loeb Discovered artificial parthenogenesis.
1901 T.H. Montgomery Showed the homologous chromosomes undergo pairing during reduction division.
1901 Strasburger Introduced the term plasmodesmata.
1902 C.E. McGlung Discovered sex chromosomes in grasshopper.
1903 W.S. Sutton Showed that chromosomes occur in homologous pairs in diploid cells. Propounded “Chromosome theory of heredity.”
1903 E. Buchner Received Nobel Prize for the discovery of enzyme.
1904 F. Meves Demonstrated the presence of mitochondria in plant cells.
1905 J.H. Framer and Coined the term
J.E. Moore (1905) meiosis
1906 C. Golgi and Received Nobel
Ramon, Y. Cajal Prize for discovery of Golgi complex.
1906 M. Tswett Discovered chromo tography.
1907 K.G. Harrison Developed tissue culture technique.
1910 A. Kossel Got Nobel Prize for describing the chemistry of nucleus.
1910 T.H. Morgan Discovered sex linkage in Drosophila.
1912 C. Carrel Described technique of tissue culture.
1913 L. Michaellis and Showed that dur-
M. Menton ing enzyme action, enzyme and substrate enzyme substrate complex.
1915 R.M. Willstatier Got Nobel Prize for the investigation of chlorophyll.
1923 G. Hevesy Discovered that technique of tracing the path of labelled isotopes through metabolic pathway.
1924 A. Feulgen and H Described Feulgen
Rossenbeck test for locating DNA in cell.
1926 T. Svedberg Got Nobel Prize for ultracentrifugation technique.
1928 F. Griffith Discovered transformation in bacteria.
1931 O.P. Warburg Discovered cytochrome oxidase. The respiratory enzyme which catalyses the oxidation of cytochromes.
1931 W.H. Lewis Discovered pinocytosis.
1932 M. Knoll and Produced first elec-
R. Ruska tron microscope.
1933 T.H. Morgan Received Nobel Prize for the discovery of role of Chromosomes in heredity.
1934 R.R. Bansley Isolated motochon-
and H.L. Hoerr dria from the cell.
1935 W.M. Stanley Isolated tobacco mosaic virus in crystalline form.
1937 Hans A. Krebs Discovered citric acid cycle or T.C.A. cycle which after his name is called Krebs Cycle and received Nobel Prize in 1953.
1937 W.M. Haworth and Discovered mole-
P. Karrer cular structure of carbohydrates, Vitamin C carotenoids, Vitamin A and B and got Nobel Prize.
1937 A.E. Blakslee Induced polyploidy by blocking cell division with the drug colchicine.
1938 T. Capersson Developed ultraviolet photo-micrography for the study of nucleic acids.
1940 M. Kuntz Crystallized ribonuclease.
1941 G.W.Beadle and Induced biochemi-
E.L. Tatum cal mutation in bread mould Neurospora by X-ray irradiation and propounded ‘one gene one enzyme theory.’
1941 A. Claude Isolated mitochondria by ultracentrifugation.
1944 A. Claude Isolated cell components—ribosomes, nuclei and mitochondria by differential centrifugation.
1944 C.F. Robinow Demonstrated nucleus in bacteria.
1944 O.T. Avery, C.M. Discovered Trans-
MacLeod and Mac formation in bacte-
Carty ria and showed that DNA is the hereditary material.
1944 E.L. Tatum, D. Used mutant strains
Bonner and D. Neurospora to
Beadle work out successive steps in the biosynthesis of tryptophan.
1945 K.R. Porter Discovered endoplasmic reticulum.
1945 E. Lipman Discovered coenzyme A. Demonstrated its importance in intermediary metabolism and got Nobel Prize.
1946 H.J. Muller Production of mutation by X-ray radiation.
1946 J.B.Summer Crystallized the first enzyme.
1946 J.H. Northop and Prepared enzymes
W.M. Stanley and virus proteins in pure form.
1948 A. Bovin R. Demonstrated qua-
Vendrely ntitative constancy of DNA material in various cells of the same organism.
1949 L. Pauling By studying sickle cell anaemia, demonstrated that protein structure is under genetic control.
1950 J. Casperson and Demonstrated the
Brecket role of RNA in protein synthesis.
1950 E.Chargaff Discovered that in DNA amount of purine is equivalent to the amount of pyrimidine.
1952 C.DecDuve Identified Iyso-some.
1952 G.E. Palade Analysed the fine structure of mitochondria and showed the presence of mitochondrial cristae.
1953 F. Zernike Received Nobel Prize for the discovery of phase contrast microscope.
1953 Watson and Crick Demonstrated double helical model for DNA and received Noble Prize in 1962.
1955 Gurmerg, S. Ochoa Discovered poly-
and Manago nucleotide phosphorylase enzyme.
1955 Ocoa and Kornberg Biologically syn-
thesized nucleic acid of bacteria Escherichia coli and received Noble Prize in 1955.
1956 A.R. Todd Got Nobel Prize for the discovery of nucleotides and nucleotidic coenzymes.
1957 Seymour Benzer Presented for the first time the complex structure of gene.
1957 Vogel, Magasanik Described genetic
and others repression of enzyme synthesis.
1957 Hoagland, Zamec- Isolated transfer
nic and Stephenson RNA and postulated its function.
1957 Skou Discovered NA+, K+ stimulated ATPase and postulated its role in transport of Na+ and K+ across the cell membrane.
1958 Meseison and Stahi Provided the experimental confirmation of the Waston and Crick model of semiconservative replication of DNA.
1958 F. Sanger Received Noble Prize for discovery of structure of insulin.
1958 E.H.C. Crick Proposed the central dogma of molecular biology that DNA determines the squence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
1958 V. Ingran Showed that normal haemoglobin differs from sickle cell haemoglobin in a single amino acid residue in one of the b-chains.
1959 A. Komberg and Received Nobel
S. Ochoa Prize in vitro synthesis of polyde-oxyribonucleotides.
1959 C.E. Ford, P.A. Discovered chro-
Jacob & J.H. Tijo mosomalbasis for certain genetic abnormalities.
1960 J.Hartwig. A. Demonstrated the
Stevans and S. role of enzyme
Weiss RNA polymerase in the synthesis of RNA from DNA template.
1960 Park and Biggins Discovered quan-tosomes in chloroplasts.
1960 Hirs, Morre and Determined the
Stein amino acid sequence of ribonuclease.
1961 Raker and his Isolated F1 ATPase
colleagues from mitochondria and reconstituted oxidative phosphorylation in submitochondrial particles.
1961 Jacob and Monod Proposed operon hypothesis and postulated function of mRNA.
1961 Nirenberg and Received Nobel
Mathaei Prize for work on genetic code.
1961 M. Calvin Received Nobel Prize for work on photosynthesis.
1962 J.C. Kendrew and Structure of pro-
M.R. Perut tein.
1963 H.M. Temin Discovered RNA-directed DNA synthesis in certain tumour viruses.
1963 Chance and Pason; Discovered ele-Smith and H. Fer- mentary particles
nandez-Moran in mitochondria.
1965 F. Jacob and Discovered activi-
J. Monod ties of the regulatory genes.
1965 A. Lwoff Dupraw Chromosome represent a highly coiled Histone DNA duplex.
1968 M.W. Nirenberg Discovered base
H.G. sequence of tRNA. Received Noble Prize.
1969 Khorana and R.H. Reproduction in
Holley M. Delbruck, viruses received
A.D. Hershy Nobel Prize.
1970 H. Khorana Synthesized artificial gene from DNA mucleotides.
1970 Knippers, Komberg Isolated DNA-
and Geafter polymerasell enzyme.
1971 E.W. Sutherland Describe role of cyclic AMP.
1972 W.H. Stein, Morris Structure of ribo-
and Anfinsen nuclease enzyme received Nobel Prize.
1973 Pattijohn and Hash Described DNA is not linear but is circular with no free ends in prokaryotes.
1974 C. de Duve Structure and function of lysosomes.
1975 H. Temin and D. Discovered reverse
Baltimore transcription.
1976 Nathans, Smith Restriction en-
and Arber zymes and their use
Peter Mitahel Chemiosmotic theory.
A. Klug Study of structure of complicated biomolecules using electron microscope.
1989 T.R. Coch and Catalytic role of
Altman RNA.
1991 Nehar and Sahmann Function of single ion channel in the cell.
1992 Edmon H. Fisiher Reversible phos-
Edwin J. Trebbs phorylation.
1994 Alfred G. Gilman ‘G’ proteins related
Rodbell with single transduction in cells.
Therefore for the two molecules of citric acid metabolized (9 × 2)
…18 molecules
(c) From hydrogens accepted by FAD (1 × 2) …2 molecules
Thus for the two molecules of citiric acid metabolized (2 × 2) … 4 molecules
Total …36/38 molecules
2 molecules of ATP consumed in transferring NADH into mitochondria in eukaryotes …2 molecules
ATP production in different types of respiration
Types of Organism or Substrate ATP
Respiration Tissue and Generated
Products
Fermentation
(Anaerobic)
1. EMP pathway Yeast Glucose to 2 ATP
ethanol
2. EMP pathway Homo Glucose to 2 ATP
fermentative lactic acid
lactic acid
bacteria
3. ED pathway Pseudomonas Glucose to 1 ATP
ethanol
4. Alkaline Yeast Glucose to No ATP
fermentation glycerol
Muscle
Glycolysis
Emp pathway Muscles Glycogen 3 ATP
anaerobic to lactic
acid
Muscle
respiration
(Aerobic)
1. Glycolysis Muscles Glycogen 8 ATP
to Pyruvic
acid
2. Pyruvic acid Pyruvic 6 ATP
oxidation acid to
acetyl CoA
(× 2)
3. Krebs’ cycle Citric acid 24 ATP
to oxalo-
acetic acid
(× 2) 38 ATP
The Pathogenic Protozoa of Man
Parasite Habitat Disease
1. Entamoeba Lower portion Amoebic dysentery
histolytica of small or enterisits.
intestine
2. Plasmodium Destroys Liver Benign tertian
vivax cells and RBC malaria.
3. Balantidium Ulcers in colon Ciliary dysentery
coli and invades
mucous memb-
rane by secreting
cytolysin
4. Leishmania Enlargement of Kala-azar
donovani liver and spleen,
anaemia, weak-
ness, constant
fever.
5. L. tropica Affects hands, Oriental sore
feet, legs and
face.
6. L. brasiliensis Affects mucous Mococu-taneous
membrane of Leishmaniasis
nose, tonuge, and
throat.
7. Giardia Reduces the Flagellate diarrhoea
intestinalis absorption of fats
as it covers
mucous
membrane
8. Trichomonas Damages genital Leucorrhoea
vaginalis tract of female
9. T. Hominis Damages large Mild diarrhoea
intestine
10. Trypano- Parasites pene- Gambian sleeping
soma gam- trate from blood sickness
biense lymph glands
11. T. rhode- Same Rhodesian sleeping
siense sickness
12. T. cruzi Fever, enlarge- Chages fever
ment of glands
anaemia and
nervous disorder
Common Human Flukes
Name Intermediate Host
1. Fasciolopsis buski Early larvae in snails of genera Planorbis
—The Intestinal Fluke and Sementino, Matecercariae on water plants.
2. Opisthorchis sinensis Early larvae in snails of genera, Bithynia
—The Chinese Liver- and Parafossealurus,
fluke Metacercariae in fresh water fish.
3. Paragonimus Early larvae in snail of
westermani genus Melania.
—The lung fluke Metacercariae in crayfish and crabs.
4. Schistosoma Snails of genera
haematobium Bulinus, Physopsis, etc.
5. Schistosoma mansoni Snail of genera. Tropicorbis, Biomph-laria and Austalobis.
—The Blood fluke
6. Schistosoma japoni Snails of Genera
cum matayama and Oncomelania.
—The Blood fluke.
Common Human Tapeworms
Name Intermediate Host
1. Taenia solium— Pig (Muscles)
The pork Tapeworm
2. Taenia saginata— Cattle (Muscles)
The Beef Tapeworm
3. Echinococcus Man (Liver, Lungs,
granulosus Brain, Kidneys, Heart),
The dog Hydatid worm Sheep, Goat, Pig, Cat.
Common parasitic roundworms
Name Site of Effect on host
Infection
1. Enterobius Large intestine, Anal itching,
vermicularis caecum appendicitis
–The Pin and appendix nervous
Worm trouble
2. Ascaris Small intestine Anaemia,
lumbricoides diarrhoea,
–Round bronchitis,
worm Pneumonia
3. Loa Loa Subcutaneous Conjunctivities
–the Eye tissue of eyes.
Worm
4. Trichinella Encysted Muscular
spiralis larvae in pain, pneumonia
–The Trichina striated
Worm muscles,
adults in
intestine.
5. Trichuris Caecum and Abdominal
trichiura appendix pain, anaemia,
–The Whip bloody stools.
Worm
6. Ancylos- Intestine Itching and
toma duo- inflammation
denale of skin anaemia,
–The Hook mental
Worm and physical
deficiency.
7. Dracun- Subcutaneous Ulcers,
culus medi- tissue diarrhoea,
nensis asthma,
–The Guinea
Worm
8. Wuchereria Lymph vessels Elephantiasis
The Filarial bancrofti or filariasis
Worm
False Worms
Name Scientific Name Plylum/Class
1. Acorn worm Balanoglossus Hemichordata
2. Bag worm Larva of moth Arthropoda
3. Blind worm Ichthyophis Amphibia
4. Earth worm Pheretima Annelida
5. Fan worm Serpula Annelida
6. Fire worm Odonotosyllis Annelida
7. Lug worm Arenicola Annelida
8. Paddle worm Chaetopterus Annelida
9. Glass worm Sagitta Annelida
10. Scale worm Polynoe Annelida
11. Clam worm Nereis Annelida
(Sand or Rag worm)
12. Ring worm Teredo Mullusca
13. Ship worm Teredo Mollusca
14. Walking Peripatus Arthropoda
worm
15. Lancelet Amphioxus Cephalo-
worm chordata
16. Silk worm Bombyx Arthropoda
17. Slow worm Angnis Reptilia
18. Bond worm Uraeotyphlus Amphibia
Larvae of Crustaceans
1. Nauplius–Cyclops. It may give rise to intermediate larval forms
2. Metanauplius–Apus
3. Protozoea–Penaeus
4. Megalopa–True crab
5. Glamcothel–Hermit crab
6. Schizopod–Lobster
7. Cypris–Leaps, Sacculus
8. Alima–Squilla
9. Phyllzosoma–Spiny lobster
10. Zoea.
Disease Spread by Arthropoids
Vectors Diseases Transmitted
1. Mosquitoes
(i) Anopheles Malaria
(ii) Culex Filariasis, Japanese Encephalities
(iii) Aedes Yellow Fever, Dengue, Haemorrhagic Fever (DHF).
(iv) Mansonia Filariasis.
2. Flies
(i) Housefly Typhoid, Diarrhoea, Dysentery, Cholera, Tuberculosis, Poliomye-litis, Conjunctivitis, Trachoma, Amoebiasis, Helminth infections.
(ii) Sandfly (Phele- Kala-azar, Oriental Sore
botomus)
(iii) Tse tse Fly Sleeping Sickness
(Glossina)
3. Louse (Pediculus, Epidemic Typhus,
Phthirus) Trench Fever, Relapsing Fever.
4. Rat flea Bubonic Plague, Endermic
(Xenopsylla) Typhus
5. Kissing bug Chages Disease.
(Panstrongylus)
II. Crustaceans
1. Water flea Guinea-worm Disease,
(Cyclops) Intermediate host Broad Tapeworm of fishes and guinea worm of man.
III. Arachnids
1. Mite (Leptotrom- Scrub Typhus
bidium)
2. Ticks
(i) Omithodorus Relapsing fever
(ii) Dermancentor Tick typhus.
Larvae of echinoderms
1. Dipleura larva : It is the basic larva and all others are derived from it.
2. Bipinnaria larva : Larva of Asteriodea.
3. Auricularia : Larva of holothuroidea.
4. Ophiplecteus larva ophiuoidea : It is larva of Echinoplectus.
5. Doliolaria : Larva of sea lilies (crinoidea)
False Fishes
Name Scientific Name Phylum/Class
1. Jelly fish Aurelia Coelenterata
2. Silver fish Lepisma Arthropoda
3. Cray fish Astacus Arthropoda
4. Cuttle fish Sepia Mollusca
5. Devil fish Octopus Mollusca
6. Razor fish Solen Mollusca
7. Star fish Asteria Echinodermata
8. Basket fish Gorgonocep- Echinodermatahalus
9. Hag fish Myxine Cyclostomata
10. Whale fish Orcinus Mammalia
List of poisonous snakes of India
1. Cobra (Najanaja)
2. King Cobra (Naja hanna)
3. Common krait
4. Branded krait
5. Black krait
6. Russel’s viper
7. Saw scaled viper
8. Himalayan pit viper
9. Hump nosed viper
10. Indian Sea snake
11. Bengal Sea snake
12. Indian coral snake
Types of Teeth
1. Acrodont dentition : When the teeth are not embedded in sockets but they are part of some bone as maxillary teeth and vomerine teeth of frog.
2. Thecodont dentition : When teeth are separate entities and are embedded in the teeth sockets as in mammals and crocodiles.
3. Diphyodont dentition : When two sets of teeth are produced in the life time i.e. milk teeth and permanent teeth, as in Mammals.
4. Polyphyodont dentition : When teeth can be replaced many times in life, as in frog.
5. Homodont dentition (isodont) : When teeth are alike as in frog.
6. Heterodont dentition : When there are different types of teeth present, like incisors, canines, premolars and molars as in mammals.
7. Pleurodont dentition : When the sides of teeth are fixed over the lateral surface of jaws as in reptiles.
8. Bunodont dentition : When there are low cusps present made by ridges of the teeth as in man.
9. Solenodont : When the cusps are cresentric as in sheep, etc.
10. Lophodont : When cusps fuse into transverse ridges as in elephant.
11. Secondont : In carnivores such as cat, dog, lion, etc. cusps are pointed and are used in cutting.
Major Gastrointestinal enzymes in Mammals
Name of gland Name of Name of digestive Enzyme
Juice
Salivary glands Saliva Ptyalin
Gastric gland Gastric Juice (a) Pepsin
(b) Renin
(c) Gastric lipase
Liver Bile
Pancreas Pancreatic (a) Amylase
Juice (b) Trypsin
(c) Chymotrypsin
(d) Carboxypeptidases
(e) Lipase
(f) DNAase
(b) RNAase
Intestinal Intestinal (a) Enteropeptiglands Juice dase (enterokinase)
(b) Aminopeptidase
(c) Dipeptidase
(d) Isomaltase
(e) Maltase
(f) Sucrase
(g) Lactase
(h) Lipase
(i) Nucleotidase
(j) Nucleoside
phosphorylases
pH Values of Some Enzymes
Enzyme Acting on pH value
1. Pepsin Casein 1.8
2. Pepsin Haemoglobin 2.2
3. Sucrase Sucrose 6.2
4. Amylase Starch 5.6-7.2
5. Maltase Maltose 7.0
6. Lipase Fats 7.0
7. Trypsin Protein 7.8
8. Carboxy- Different 7.5
peptidase substances
9. Urease Urea 6.4-6.9
10. Catalase H2O2 (Hydro- 6.3-9.5
gen peroxide)
11. Succinic Succinate 9.0
dehydrogenase
Fat Soluble Vitamins
Name of Vitamins and Name of deficiency
Chemical name disease
Vitamin A (Ritino) 1. Xerophthalmia
(C20 H29 OH)
(antixerophthalmic) 2. Night blindness or nyctalopia
3. Keratomalacia
Vitamin D (C28 H44 O) Rickets in children and
or Ergocalciferol Osteomalacia in adults.
(Sunshine vitamin)
Anitirachitic vitamin.
Vitamin E Destruction of RBC in
(a-Tocopherol) male causes sterility and
C29H50O2 in female abortion may occur or offspring may be born dead. Effect not proved in man.
Vitamin K Reduced ability of blood
Phylloquinone to clot and also lead to
(C31H46O2) haemorrhages.
Water Soluble Vitamins
Name of Vitamins Name of deficiency
and chemical name disease
Thiamine (Vitamin B1 1. Anorexia–loss of
C12H16N4SO) Anti- appetite.
neuritic or Antiberiber) 2. Polyneuritis in animals and beri-beri in man (Muscular atrophy cardiovascular change).
Vitamin B2 or G Morbid changes in skin
(Riboflavin C17H26N4O6 called cheilosis, inflam-
Lactoflavin or mation of lips, fissures
ovatflavin) at corners of mouth. Also causes glossitis inflammation of tongue.
Vit. B2 or Niacin or Pillagra, dermatitis, dia-
Nicotinic acid C6H5NO2 rrhoea, dementia, muscular atrophy, inflammation of mucous membrane of gut.
Vit B5 (Pantothenic Burning feet syndrome,
acid C9H17O5N) cardiovascular and gastrio intestinal disturbances.
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine) or Causes anaemia with
C8H11O3N pellagra.
Vit. H or B1 (Biotin) or Dermatitis followed by
coenzyme R (C10H16N2 anorexia, muscular pain.
O3S)
Folic Acid group 1. Megaloblastic
(Vit. M or Vit. B10) 2. Mouth lesion
3. Glossitis
4. Leucopenia
B12 (Cyanacobalamine) Pernicious anaemia,
or Animal protein accompanied by dege-
factor (APF) neration of spinal cord,
(C6H66O14N14PCo) typical sore tone.
Vit. C (Ascorbic Acid) Wound healing and
(C6H6O6) growth retarded spongy
Heat labile and bleeding gums, fragile blood vessels and bones. scurvy.
Physiological Role and Sources of the Important Minerals
Minerals Physiological roles
Sodium (Na) Major extracellular fluid cation, Osmotic (water) balance, Buffering, (acid base balance),
Absorption of glucose into cells, Transmission of electro-chemical impulse in muscles and nerves.
Potassium (K) Major intercellular fluid cation Buffering
Regulation of nerve and muscles function
Glycogen formation and protein synthesis
Calcium (Ca) Component of bones and muscle. Blood clotting, muscle contraction Ranal Rickets caused by loss of Ca in old age. Nerve impulse transmission plasma membrane permeability Enzyme activation (ATP ase)
Phosphorus (P) Bone formation
Phosphrylation of glucose glycerol, fatty acids, aids in their absorption and transport energy metabolism (enzymes ATP) Buffer system.
Sulphur (S) Part of proteins and activates enzymes
High-energy sulphur bonds in energy metabolism
Detoxification reactions.
Iron (Fe) Component of the heme group found in haemoglobin, myoglobin and cytochromes.
Nutritional Disorders Due to Deficiency of Dietary Component
Name of deficiency Deficient Nutrient
Anaemia (microcytic) Fe
Megaloblastic anaemia Folic acid or B12
Pernicious anaemia Vitamin B12
Xerophthalmia Vitamin A
Night Blindness Vitamin A
Rickets (in children) Vitamin D
Osteomalacia (adults) Vitamin D
Beri-beri Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
Scurvy Vitamin C
Bleeding disease Vitamin K
(Hypoprothrombin anaemia)
Marasmus Protein
Kwshiorkor Protein
Pellagra Nicotinamide
Black Tongue disease B5 deficiency in dog
Keratomalacia
Major Respiratory Organs of Different Animals
Name of group Respiratory Mode of
organs respiration
1. Unicellular Diffusion through
bacteria and plasma mem-
protists brane
2. Porifers, Diffusion by
coelenterates individual cells
3. Helminthes General surface Cutaneous and annelids or body in free living worms.
4. Insects Trachea Tracheal
5. Crustaceans Gills Branchial
6. Molluscs Gills and pul- Branchial and monary sac pulmonary
7. Echinoderms Dermal Bran- Branchial
chiae
8. Fishes Gills Branchial
respiration
9. Amphibians Skin Cutaneous
respiration
Lungs Pulmonary
respiration
Lining of Buccal Buccal
cavity respiration
10. Reptiles and Lungs Pulmonary
Birds Respiration
11. Turtle Cloaca Cloacal
respiration
12. Mammals Lungs Pulmonary
respiration
Respiratory Pigments in Animals
Name of Pigment Site (Located at)
1. Haemoglobin RBCs and plasma
2. Haemocyanin Plasma
3. Haemoerythrin Corpuscles
4. Chlorocruorin Plasma
5. Pinnaglobin Plasma
6. Vanadium (element) Green blood corpuscle.
Disorders related with Circulatory System
Blood pressure : The pressure exerted by flow of blood on the walls of the arteries is termed blood pressure.
Arterial blood pressure : The pressure of blood in the arteries is called arterial blood pressure.
Pulse pressure : The difference between systolic pressure and diastolic pressure is termed pulse pressure.
Hypotension (Low blood pressure) : It is caused due to permanent vasodilation of arteries or failure of pumping action of heart.
Hypertension (High blood pressure): It is caused due to rise in cholesterol level, nervous strain, arteriosclerosis and kidney trouble.
Thrombophilia : A disorder of haemopoietic system in which there is tendency of the occurrence of thrombosis.
Thrombocytopenia : Fall in number of thrombocytes in blood.
Polycythemia : Increase in number of RBC in blood.
Leucopenia : Abnormal fall in number of WBC in blood.
Leukaemia : It is the cancer of blood in which bone marrow and lymph nodes produce more lymphocytes.
Diapedesis : Squeezing out of W.B.C. from blood capillaries.
Acapnia : Decreased amount of CO2 in the blood.
Anaemia : It is dosorder resulted by either decrease in R.B.C. or in amount of haemoglobin.
Sickle cell anaemia : It is a congenital haemolytic disease in which R.B.C. destruction occurs due to intracellular defects.
Pernicious anaemia : Macrocytic (large sized) R.B.C. with less O2 carrying capacity. It is due to extra-cellular defect.
Haemoglobinomia is the disorder due to abnormal destruction of R.B.C. in the fluid and setting free Hb.
Marked decrease in concentration of plasma protein is termed hypopro-teinemia.
Tachycardia : The heart beats rapidly.
Bradycardia : The heart beats slowly. The enlargement of heart is termed cardiomegaly.
Cradiac arrest is complete stoppage of heart beat.
Arterosclerosis : It is also called hardening of arteries, results due to arteries losing their elasticity because of deposition of calcium salts in walls.
Heart block : The cardiac condition resulting from the defective transmission of impulse from atrium to the ventricle is termed as heart block.
Heart murmur : The abnormal heart sound produced as a result of defective valves.
Patent Ductus Arteriosus : A congenital heart defect in which ductus arteriosus remains open. It must be closed by a surgical operation.
Angina : Heart pain of short duration usually located in front of the chest.
Ischaesmia (pronounced is-keemia) : Inadequate flow of blood to a part of the heart caused by obstruction to its blood supply.
Myocardial Infarction : Death of a part of heart muscle following cessation of blood supply to it is acute heart attack.
Haemolysis : It is the destruction of the blood corpuscles, causing the release of contained haemoglobin into plasma.
Haemotoma : Blood collected in the tissues outside the blood vessels, a common skin bruise due to blow.
Haemorrhage : Loss of blood from injured blood vessels.
Haemorrhoids : These are varicose veins in the walls of the rectum.
Oedema (Edema) : A local swelling due to accumulation of serous fluid in tissue caused by defective circulation of blood or lymph.
In arborisation heartblock, the defect lies in the Purkinje’s fibres.
Angina Pectoris : Severe but temporary heart pain which is usually felt in the front of the chest and must pass into the arms.
Myocardial Ischaesmia : Deficient blood supply to heart muscle, cause angina pectoris (G. ischein–to check haima-blood).
Organs of Excretion
Animals Excretory Organs
Protozoa, Porifera, No speical ex-cretory organ,
Coelenterata removal by diffu-sion from
body surface.
Platyhelminthes Flame cells
(Planaria) H shaped canal
Aschelminthes cells (Longitudinal tubes)
Annelida Nephridia
Arthropoda Green glands, Antennary glands, Malpighian tubules
Mollusca Kidneys
Vertebrata Kidneys, skin
Marine fish Gills eliminate excess salts.
Salt glands, Liver Lungs.
Excretory Organs of Vertebrates
1. Integument : Substances such as salts, water, CO2 and fat derivatives are removed from the body through integument.
2. Gills : In marine fishes, in addition to removing CO2 gills removed excess salts.
3. Alimentary Canal : It helps in removing certain salts such as calcium phosphate from the body.
4. Salt glands : In some marine fishes, reptiles and birds, salt excreting glands are found.
5. Liver : Liver produces urea during ornithine cycle. It also excretes bile pigments.
6. Lungs : Lungs remove CO2 alongwith certain volatile substances like alcohol, ketones bodies, aromatic oils, water vapours etc.
7. Neural gland is excretory gland in urochordates which opens into the pharynx.
8. Kidneys : This is major excretion organs which devleop from mesoderm.
Classification of Muscles Based on Functions
1. Flexors : These muscles decrease the angle of a joint. Contraction of the muscles bring the two bones together e.g. Biceps.
2. Extensor : These muscles increase the angle of a joint. Contraction of these muscles return the parts from flexor to normal position e.g. Triceps.
3. Abductors : These muscles move the bone away from middle line e.g. deltoideus.
4. Adductors : These muscles move the bone towards middle line e.g. latissimus dorsi.
5. Rotator : Contraction of these muscles cause a part to rotate or pivot on its axis e.g. pyriformis.
6. Elevators : These muscles raise a part e.g. masseter. It lifts up the lower jaw.
7. Depressor : The muscles lower a part e.g. depressor mandibulae.
8. Tensors : These muscles make a part tense or more rigid.
9. Supinator : Their contraction rotate the fore arm and turn the palm upward.
10. Pronator : These muscles turn the hand or palm downward.
11. Sphincter : These muscles decrease the size of aperture to close them, e.g. sphincter and closes the anus.
12. Dilators : They widen the aperture e.g. muscles of iris.
Disorders Related with Nervous System
1. Lack of Sensations (i) Alexia. Failure to read. (ii) Aphasia. Failure to speak. (iii) Agraphia. Failure to write. Amnesia. (iv) Loss of memory.
(v) Agnosia. Failure to recognise-tactile agnosia (failure to recognise by touch) visual agnosis, auditory agnosis,
(vi) Analgesia. Insensibility to pain,
(vii) Anaesthesia. Loss of feeling,
(viii) Coma, State of unconsciousness.
Meningitis : Imflammation of meanings of brain and may be caused due to infections (viral, bacterial or both) or increased amount of cerebrospinal fluid or injuries. Excess of cerebrospinal fluid may be drained by lumbar puncture.
Parkinsonism is the disease of nervous system. Dopamine neurotransmitter is secreted in this disease.
Some Breeds of Animals
Cattle
A. Milch Breed
1. Gir-Gujarat, Rajasthan
2. Sahiwal-Pb, Haryana, UP
3. Red Sindhi-A.P.
4. Deoni-A.P.
B. Draught breeds
1. Malvi-Raj., M.P.
2. Nageri-Delhi, Hry, U.P.
3. Hallikar-Karnataka
4. Kangayam—T.N. & South India
C. General Utility breeds
1. Haryana-Hry. Pb., Bihar, M.P., Guj.
2. Ongole-A.P.
3. Kankrej-Gul.
4. Tharparkar-A.P. & Guj.
Buffaloes
1. Murrah-Pb., Hry, U.P.
2. Bhadawari-U.P. & M.P.
3. Jaffrabadi-Guj.
4. Surti-Raj., Guj.
5. Mehsana-Guj.
6. Nagpuri or Ellichpursi-Central & South India
7. Nili Ravi-Pb & Hry.
European breeds
Holstein, Brown Swiss, Jersey, Red Dane
NDRI Karnal Developed Karan Swiss Sunandini-Kerala
Mithun-North Easter India
Yak-Lahaul Spiti, Leh Ladhakh, Garhwal, Sikkim
Sheep Ovis sps.
Lohi-Pb, Raj.
Rampur Bushair-U.P. & H.P.
Nali-Hry, Pb, Raj.
Bhakarwal-J & K.
Deccani-Karnataka
Nellore-Maharashtra
Marwari-Guj.
Patanwadi-Guj.
Exotic Breeds
Dorset, Horn Merino
Goats Capra hircus (Wild)
Gaddi—H.P.
Kashmiri Pashmina-Kashmir, Tibet, H.P.
Jamunapari—U.P. & M.P.
Beetal-Pb
Marvari-Raj
Berari-Mah.
Malabari-Kerala
Bengal-Bihar & Orissa
Pigs
1. Desi-U.P., Bihar, Pb, M.P.
2. Ghori-Manipur, Assam, Megha-laya, Arunachal Pradesh
Exotic Pigs
1. Berkshire-U.K.
2. Large white Yorkshire-U.I.
3. Landrace-Switzerland
Horses
1. Kathiawari-Raj & Guj
2. Marwari-Raj
3. Bhutia-Pb & Bhutan
4. Manipuri-N. East Mount
5. Spiti-H.P.
6. Zanskari-Ladakh
Camels
1. Arabian one humped
(Camelus dromidarius)
2. Bactrian two humped
(C. Bactrianus)
3. Indian breeds Jaisalmeri
Sindhi Bikaneri
Poultry
Indigenous breed-Aseel, Karaknath, Ghagus, Brahma, Busra and Cochin
Exotic-White leghorn, Rhode Island Red, Plymouth, Rock, New Hampshire
Duck-Muscori, Pakin, Aylesbury, Campbell are exotic breads
Indian breeds-Runner, Syhlet Meta, Brown & White geese.
Fishes
Three common fresh water edible fishes :
1. Rohu (Labeo rohita).
2. Calbasu (Labeo calbasu).
3. Malli (Wallago attu).
Three common marine edible fishes :
1. Bombay duct (Harpodon Rom).
2. Hilsa (Hilsa).
3. Salmon (Aluitheronema).
Examples of Classes of Pesticides
Name of Pesticide Examples
1. Organochlorines DDT, BHC, Aldrin, Endosulphane.
2. Organophosphate Malathion, Parathion and Penitrothion.
3. Carbamates Carbofuran, Aldicar-boropoxus.
4. Triazines Simazines, Altrazine
5. Pyrethoids Pyrethrin
Types of Pesticides
S.No. Group of Organisms
Pesticides Killed
1. Fungicide Fungal pathogen
2. Herbicide Weeds
3. Insecticide Insects
4. Rodenticide Rodents
5. Nematicide Nematodes
6. Algicides Algal pathogens.
Abbreviations
ECG-Electrocardiogram
EEG-Electroencephalograph
EMG-Electromyograph
SQUID-Superconducting quantum inter-ference device.
MET-Magnetoencephalography.
CT-Computerised Tomography
CAT-Computerised Axial Tomo-graphy.
PET-Positron Emission Tomographic Scanning
NMR-Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging.
MRI-Magnetic resonance imaging
RF-Radio frequency.
EPS-Evoked potential synchronous.
CCA-Computer controlled autoanalysers.
LASER-Light Amplification by stimulated emission of Radiation.
EPSP-Excitatory postsynaptic potential.
IPSP-Inhibitory postsynaptic potential.
PSVER-Pattern Shift Visual Evoked Response
BEAR-Brain Stem Auditory Evoked Response
VCG-Vertor Cariography
Antibiotics and their use
S.N. Antibiotic Used against
1. Penicillin Staphylococcus, Streptococcus to treat sore throat, pneumonia, rheumatic fever, tonsi-lities etc.
2. Streptomycin TB, meningitis, pneumonia.
3. Chloromycetin/ Typhoid, cough and
Chloramphenicol diphtheria
4. Erythromycin Diphtheria, whooping cough
5. Griseofulvin Antifungal, especially for Ringworm.
6. Nystatin Antifungal for Candidiasis and overgrowth of instestinal Fungi during excessive antibiotic treatment.
7. Hamycin Antifungal for Thrush.
8. Fumagillin Broad spectrum antibacterial espcially against Salmonella and Shigella.
9. Bacitracin Syphilis, Lympho-nema or Reti-culosis.
10. Tetracyclins/ Viral Pneumonia,
Aureomycin Osteomyelitis Whoo-ping Cough, Eye infections.
11. Oxytetracycline Intestinal and urinary infections
12. Terramycin Spirochaetes, Rickettsiae, Viruses.
Biotechnology Products Available
Hormones Similar types of Proteins
Treatment of Human For Disorders
1. Insulin Diabetes
2. Human Growth
hormone (HGH) Pituitary dwarfism
3. TPA, tissue plasmi- Heart attack, Strokes
nogen activator
4. Interferons (a, b Cancer, Viral infections
and g)
5. Erythropoietin Anaemia
6. Interleukin-2 Cancer
7. Blood clotting factor Haemophilia
VIII (Antihaemo-
philic factor)
8. Human lung Respiratory distress of
surfactant newborn
9. Atrial natriuretic High blood pressure
factor (lowering)
10. Tumour necrosis Cancer
factor (TNF)
10. Ceredase Gaucher disease
Examples of Signalling Molecules and their Sources
Sources Type of Examples
Secretion
Endocrine glands Hormones Somatotropin,
of cells Glucagon,
testosterone
Neurosecretory Hormones ADH, oxytocin,
cells (or neurohor- TRH, dopamine
mones) epinephrine
Synapsing Transmitter Acetylcholine,
neurons substances dopamine,
noradreniline
Local mediator Local signalling Prostaglandins,
cells molecules histamine, nerve
growth factor
Glands or cells Pheromones Bombykol
Outside body Antigens Trigger the
formation at
antibodies
Mast cell Local Signal Histamine
Main sategories of Hormones
Type of Hormone Examples
Steroid Estrogens, testosterone, andro-gens, progesterone aldoste-rone, cortisol
Non steroid Thyroxine
Amines Norepinephrine, epinephrine
Peptides ADH, oxytocin, TSH
Proteins Insulin, somatotropin, prolactin
Glycoproteins FSH, LH, TSH
Classification of Hormones on the Basis of Functions
A. Metabolism
1. Thyroxine
2. Insulin
3. Glucagon
4. Adrenocorticotrophic hormones
5. Adrenaline
6. Androgens
7. Relaxin
B. Growth and development
1. Somatotrphic.
C. Reproduction
1. T.S.H.
2. L.H.
3. Estrogen
4. Progesterone
5. Androgens
6. Relaxin
D. Regulation of digestive juice
1. Gastrin
2. Secretin
3. Pancreozymin
4. Cholecystokinin
5. Enterokinin
6. Enterogasterone
Endocrine glands and their secretions
Name of gland Name of hormone and
and location chemical nature
1. Thyroid (Below the 1. Thyroxine (Iodineted
larynx) Amino acid)
2. Parathyroid (Behind Parathormone (PTH)
Thyroid) Protein, (Collip’s hormone)
3. Thymus Upper chest Thymosin (Protein)
near the heart (Atrophies
in adult)
4. Pineal Body (Roof Malatonin (Amino)
of Brain)
5. Adrenal, (On the top Glucocorticoid Cortisol
of Kidney) (Steroid)
(i) Adrenal cortex Mineralcorticoids Aldosterone (Steroid) Sex corticoids (Steroid)
(ii) Adrenal Medulla Noradrenaline (Amine)
(Gland of Emergency) Adrenaline (Amino)
6. Pituitary Gland Gonadotropin
‘Master Endocrine hormones), (ii) Gona-
gland’ attached to dotropin (Protein)
hypothalamus (A) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). (B) Es-trogen. (C) Luteinizing hormone. (LH) (female)
Anterior lobe Five (D) ICSH Interstitial
types of cells cell stimulating hormone
(iii) Somatotrophic or Growth hormone (Somatotropin)
(iv) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) or Thyrotropin Protein
(v) drenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) Protein
(vi) Prolactin hormone
Middle Lobe Melanocyte Stimulatory Hormone (MSH)
Posterior Lobe (Neuro (i) Oxytocin (Pitocin)
hypophysis) (ii) ADH
7. Pancreas B-cell-insulin
a-cell-glucagon
8. Testes (interstitial Testosterone (Steroid)
cells or leyding cells of
testis
9. Ovary (Abdominal Estrogen (Steroid)
cavity)
Progesterone (steroid)
Relaxin (Protinic)
Placenta Human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) Progestrone
Hormones Secreted by Wall of Alimentary Canal
1. Name of Part of Name of Hormones
Alimentary cannal
1. Stomach Gastrin
2. Wall of Duodenum Enterogasterone
3. Wall of Duodenum Secretin
Cholecystokinin
Enterocrinin
Duocrinin
Vililkimin
Abbreviations Used in Endocrinology
1. PTH : Parathormone (Collip’s hormone) by Parathyroid.
2. T-RH : Thyrotropic releasing hormone-by Hypothalamus
3. A-RH : Adrenocorticotrophic releasing hormone (for release of ACTH)-by hypothalamus
4. G-RH : Gonadotrophic Releasing Hormone
5. S-RH : Somatotrophic Releasing hormone
6. GIH : Growth Inhibiting Hormone Somatostation
7. G-TH : Gonadotrophic Hormone by Anterior Lobe of Pituitary
8. FSH : Follicle Stimulating Hormone by Anterior Lobe
9. MSH : Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone by Intermediate Lobe
10. LH : Luteinizing Hormone by anterior Lobe
11. ICSH : Interstitial Cells Stimulating Hormone Anterior Lobe
12. STH : Somatotrophic Hormone/GH Growth Hormone Anterior Lobe
13. TSH : Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
14. ACTH : Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone
15. LTH : Luteotrophic Hormone
16. ADH : Antidiuretic Hormone
17. HCG : Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin
18. GH = Growth hormone
MH = Mammotrophic hormone
Hormonal Diseases
1. Grave’s disease : (Exopathalmic Goitre) Cause : Hypersecretion of thyroxine due to enlargement of thyroid gland.
2. Cretinism : Cause : Hyposecretion of thyroxine in children.
3. Myxoedema : Cause : Deficiency of thyroxine in adults.
Symptoms : (a) Puffy appearance due to accumulation of fats.
(b) Lack of alertness, intelligence.
(c) Slow heart beat, low BP, decreased body temperature.
4. Iodine Def. Goitre : Deficiency of iodine in diet.
Symptoms : Englarement of thyroid gland.
5. Parathyroid tetany : Cause : Deficiency of Parathormone.
Symptoms : Sustained contraction of muscles of face, pharynx, hands and feet.
6. Addison’s Disease : Cause : Deficiency of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids.
Symptoms : (a) low blood sugar, low Na+ ion, high K+ ion concentration in blood.
(b) Bronze like pigmentation of skin.
(c) Nausea, vomitting, diarrhoea.
7. Conn’s syndrome (Aldostero-nism) : Caused due to excessive secretion of aldosterone.
8. Cushing’s Syndrome : Cause : Excess of cortisol.
Symptoms : (a) High blood sugar, (b) Sugar in urine, (c) Obesity, (d) Wasting of limb muscles.
9. Adrenal virilism : Excess of sex corticoids in M (female). Tendency to develop male characteristics by the female due to imbalances in the secretion of adrenal hormone.
10. Dwarfism : Deficiency of GH from early age. It may be (a) Lorrain type, or (b) Frohlich type or Progeria.
11. Gigantism : Excess of GH from childhood.
12. Acromegaly : Excess of GH after adolescence. Stage is called Acromicria.
13. Diabetes Insipidus : Deficiency of ADH.
14. Diabetes Mellitus : Deficiency of insulin.
15. Eunuchoidism : Failure of testosterone.
16. Infantilism : Characteristics of childhood continue beyond the years of puberty. Generally caused due to imbalances in hormone of anterior pituitary.
17. Diabetes is disease caused by deficiency of insulin secreted by pancreas.
18. Hyperglycemia is lower blood glucose level than optimum level.
19. Osteoporosis is a disease caused by hypersecretion of parathormone.
20. Hashimoto’s Disease : Due to fall in secretion of thyroxine antibodies start forming against the gland, so thyroid gets destroyed. It is also known as suicide of thyroid.
21. Rickling Henson disorder : It is caused due to deficiency of collip’s hormone as a result of which phosphate level in blood decreases and Ca2+ level increases.
22. Acidosis Excessive loss of Na+ is known as acidosis. It may occur due to hyposecretion of Aldosterone.
Contributors related with Endocrinology
First hormone was discovered by William M. Bayliss and Earnest H. Starling (1903).
The term hormone was introduced by Starling (1905).
Selye (1948) defined hormone as functional chemically complex organic compound.
Berthold laid the foundation of study of functions of hormones.
Scharrer and Scharrer (1936) stated that hormones generally control or regulate the reproductive activities, growth, maturation, regeneration, metabolism and homeostasis.
Huxley called hormones as chemical messengers.
Thomas Addison is regarded as father of endocrinology.
Claude Bernad (1955) established that the nervous system controls the function of endocrine glands.
Action of insulin hormone was demonstrated by Banting and later by Best.
Shaefer (1912) gave the name insulin.
F. Sanger (1954) worked out the molecular structure of insulin. He establsihed that it is polypeptide and was awarded Nobel Prize (1958).
Human insulin was synthesized by Tsan in 1965.
Kimball and Murlin discovered glucagon.
Karlson and Burtenandt coined the term pheromones.
Kochar (1916) isolated thyroxine.
Harrington and Barges (1927) worked out molecular structures to thyroxine.
Gudernatch (1912) discovered that metamorphosis in frog’s tadpole begins only when adequate amount of thyroxine is secreted by the thyroid of the tadpole.
Aldrich (1901) worked out molecular structures of adrenaline and noradrenaline.
Stolz (1904) and Dakin (1905) synthesized adrenaline.
Enterocrinin : This hormone was isolated by Nasset from both small and large intestinal mucosa.
Some disorders of reproductive system
Amenorrhoea : Loss of normal menstruation is termed amenorrhoea.
Dysmenorrhoea : Painful menstruation.
Menstrual flow is associated with withdrawal of progesterone hormone.
The proliferative phase extends for about 10-12 days.
The Secretory phase extends for 12-14 days.
Hysterectoney : Removal of the uterus is termed hysterectomy.
Cryptorchidism : Failure of tastes to descend down into scrotum.
Gynaecomastia : Development of breast in man.
Hypermastia : More than normal number of breasts.
Gonorrhoea, Spyhilis, Genital herpes and AIDS are sexually transmitted diseases (STD)
Breast and cervical cancer, ovarian cyst, menstrual disorders, infertility are some of the disorders of female reproductive system.
Prostatitis, prostate cancer, impotence and sterility are some of disorders of male reproductive system.
Oophoritis : Inflammation of ovary.
Adiposogenital syndrome Obestiy and child like sex organs in the male (hypogonadism).
Male climacteri : Decreased male sexual function due to decrease in testosterone.
Oligospermia : Low spermatozoan concentration.
Azospermia : Near absence or absence of sperms in semen.
Eunuchodism is a condition when secondary sexual characters do not develop in male. It is due to the deficiency of testosterone.
Approximate Ages of Sexual
Maturity in Some Common Species
of Mammals.
Name of Species Age of Species
Maturity
1. Human being 11-16 years
2. Asiatic elephant 8-16 years
3. White-handed gibbon 8 years
4. Fin whale 3 years
5. Rhesus monkey 2-4 years
6. Horse 1 year
7. Cat 6-15 months
8. Dog 6-8 months
9. House mouse 35 days
Important Contributors in Genetics
E. Haeckel : Transmission of inheritance through the nucleus.
Pythagoras : He proposed moist vapour theory.
Empedocles : He propounded that each part of body produced a fluid and gave fluid theory of inheritance.
Aristotle : He gave the reproductive blood theory.
Darwin : he thought that every somatic cell and tissue of the body produces a tiny particle called gemmules or pangene which contains both parental and acquired characters.
Leeuwenhoek : Observed the sperms for the first time.
Swammerdam : He gave preformation theory.
Malpighi believed that humunculus or miniature individual is present in sperm or egg.
Maupertius : He gave theory of pangenesis and considered that heredity is controlled by minute particles.
Kolreuter : (German botanist) He obtained fertile interspecific hybrid in tobacco. He is “father of polygeic inheritance.”
John Goss : Crossed yellow sub green seeded pea varieties.
Gregor Johann Mendel : Father of genetic as he was the first to demonstrate the mechanism of transmission of characters, biochemical disorders of amn.
Johannsen : Coined the terms gene and genotype, phenotype and pure line.
Galton : Started pedigree analysis.
R.C. Punnet : Used chequer board called Punnert square to show the results of cross between two organisms.
Sir Archibald Garrod : Studied ABO blood types.
F. Galton : He studied polygenic inheritane in man coined term eugenics.
Nilsson-Ehle : Obtained the first experimental proof of polygenic inheritance in case of kernel colour of wheat.
Kalk Landsteiner : (1907) discovered A, B, O blood groups.
Castello and Steini (1902) discovered A B blood group.
Karl Landsteiner and Weiner discovered Rh factor.
Correns, de Vries and Tschermak rediscovered Mendel’s theory of inheritance. Also discovered incomplete dominance and cytoplasmic inheritance.
Bernstein : Described the mechanism of inheritance of ABO blood groups. He discovered multiple alleles, codominance and dominant recessive relationship.
C.B. Davenport (1903) studied polygenic inheritance with regard to human skin colour.
Bateson : He coined the term Genetics, F1, F2. Discovered linkage in plants allele, homozygous and heterozygous.
A. Weismann (1889) gave famous germplasm theory.
Shull coined the term heterosis and Pseudoalleles.
Mendel spent his last days in a conflict of church and died in 1884.
Research Centres of India
Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) : New Delhi.
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) : New Delhi.
National Institute of Nutrition (NIN) : Hyderabad.
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) : Delhi.
Council of Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant : Lucknow (U.P.)
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) : New Delhi.
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-arid Tropics (ICRISAT) : Pattancheru, Hyderabad.
National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) : Panaji, Goa.
Forest Research Institute (FRI) : Dehradun.
National Botanical Research Institute : (NBRI) : Lucknow (U.P.)
National Seeds Corporation (NSC) : New Delhi.
Energy Requirement for Different Activities
Activity Energy used
per hour per kg
of body weight
(Kilo joule)
1. Sleeping 4.62
2. Sitting 6.47
3. Working with
hands while sitting 7.39
4. Standing still 8.32
5. Working
(moderate speed) 13.86
6. Mild exercise 16.63
7. Heavy physical
work 23.10
Energy requirement of different individual in different age groups
Age Energy required
5 years 6000 kJ per day.
11 years 9000 kJ per day.
18 years 11000 kJ per day.
Adult (normal work) 9600 kJ per day.
Adult (heavy work) 12000 kJ per day.
Adult (very heavy 16000 kJ per day.
work)
Major Constituents of some Common Foods
Food Carbohydrate Fat Protein
Rice 23.8% 0.1% 2.3%
(cooked)
Potato 20.0% 0.1% 1.9%
Bread 57.3% 4.2% 9.6%
Eggs – 9.3% 11.9%
Spinach 3.2% 0.3% 1.6%
Peas 16.7% 0.5% 5.2%
Cabbage 5.5% 0.3% 1.2%
Bananas 20.0% 0.5% 1.0%
Apples 12.8% 0.5% 0.3%
Milk 4.0% 4.0% 3.0%
Fish 0.0% 0.4% 16.5%
Minerals Needed
Mineral Functions Food Deficiency
Sources Disease
Calcium Formation of Milk and Rickets
bones and milk prod- Osteo-
teeth, nece- ucts, egg, malacia
ssary for fish, meat,
nerves and beans, gr-
teeth and een leafy
muscles. vegetables.
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