Nehru’s long tenure in office gave continuity and cohesion to India’s domestic and foreign policies, but as his health deteriorated, concerns over who might inherit his mantle or what might befall India after he left office frequently surfaced in political circles.
After his death, the Congress chose Lal Bahadur Shastri as prime minister in June 1964. A mild-mannered person, Shastri adhered to Gandhian principles of simplicity of life and dedication to the service of the country.
His short period of leadership was beset with three major crises—widespread food shortages, violent anti-Hindi demonstrations in the state of Tamil Nadu and the second war with Pakistan over Kashmir. Shastri’s premiership was cut short when he died of a heart attack on January 11, 1966, the day after having signed the Tashkent Declaration.
Indira Gandhi held a cabinet portfolio as minister of information and broadcasting in Shastri’s government. She was the only child of Nehru, who was also her mentor in the nationalist movement. Congerss selected her as prime minister when Shastri died in 1966 even though her eligibility was challenged by Morarji Desai, a veteran nationalist and long-time aspirant to that office.
The Congress ‘bosses’ were apparently looking for a leading figure acceptable to the masses, who could command general support during the next general election. Hardly had Indira Gandhi begun in office than she encountered a series of problems that defied easy solutions—Mizo tribal uprisings in the north-east; famine, labour unrest, and misery among the poor in the wake of rupee devaluation; and agitation in Punjab for linguistic and religious separatism.
In the fourth general election in February 1967, the Congress majority was greatly reduced when it secured only 54 percent of the parliamentary seats, and non-Congress ministries were established in Bihar, Kerala, Orissa, Tamilnadu, Punjab, and West Bengal the next month.
Seeking to eradicate poverty, Mrs. Gandhi pursued a vigorous policy in 1969 of land reforms and placed a ceiling on personal income, private property, and corporate profits. She also nationalized the major banks, a bold step amidst a growing rift between herself and the party elders.
The Congress expelled her for ‘indiscipline’ on November 12, 1969, an action that split the party into two factions—the Congress (O) under Morarji Desai, and the Congress—(I) under Indira Gandhi. She continued as prime minister with support from communists, and other regional parties.
Indira Gandhi campaigned fiercely on the platform ‘eliminate poverty’ (garibi hatao) during the fifth general election in March 1971, and the Congress (I) gained a huge majority in Parliament against her former party leaders whose slogan was ‘eliminate Indira’ (Indira hatao).
India’s decisive victory over Pakistan in the third war over Kashmir in December 1971, and Indira’s insistence that the 10 million refugees from Bangladesh be sent back to their country generated a national surge in her popularity, later confirmed by her party’s gains in state elections in 1972.
She had firmly established herself at the pinnacle of power, overcoming challenges from the Congress (O), the Supreme Court, and the state chief ministers in the early 1970s.
In August 1971, Indira signed the twenty-year Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation with the Soviet Union because ties with the United States, which had improved in Nehru’s later years, had eroded.
Neither Indira consolidation of power, nor her style of administration, nor even her reforms was enough to meet the deepening economic crisis spawned by the enormous cost of the 1971 war.
A huge additional outlay was needed to manage the refugees, the crop failures in 1972 and 1973, the skyrocketing world oil prices in 1973-74, and the overall drop in industrial output despite a surplus of scientifically and technically trained personnel.
No immediate sign of economic recovery or equity was visible despite a loan obtained from the International Monetary Fund in 1974. P.M. office came under severe tests, beginning with rail employee strikes, national civil disobedience advocated by J.P. Narayan, defeat of her party in Gujarat by a coalition of parties calling itself the Janata Morcha, an all-party, no-confidence motion in Parliament, and, finally, a writ issued by the Allahabad High Court invalidating her 1971 election and making her ineligible to occupy her seat for six years.
What had once seemed a remote possibility took place on June 25, 1975—the president declared an Emergency. President’s Rule was imposed in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu and jailing thousands of her opponents.
In her need to trust and confide in someone during this extremely trying period, she turned to her younger son, Sanjay, who became a supporter of the Emergency.
Under his watchful eyes, sterilization as a means of birth control was introduced, increased numbers of urban squatters and slum dwellers in Delhi were evicted. And disgruntled workers were either disciplined or their wages frozen.
The Emergency continued until January 18, 1977, when Indira suddenly relaxed the Emergency, announced the next general election in March, and released her opponents from prison.
With elections only two months away, both J.P. Narayan and Morarji Desai reactivated the multiparty front, which campaigned as the Janata Party and rode anti-Emergency sentiment to secure a clear majority in the Lok Sabha.
Desai became India’s fourth prime minister but his government, from its inception, became notorious for its factionalism and furious internal competition. As it promised, the Janata government restored freedom and democracy, but its inability to effect sound reforms or ameliorate poverty left people disillusioned.
Desai lost the support by the early summer of 1979, and several politicians abandoned him altogether, leaving him in a minority.
A no-confidence motion was about to be introduced in Parliament in July 1979, but he resigned; Desai’s government was replaced by a coalition led by
Ch. Charan Singh. But his attempts at governing India proved futile; new elections were announced in January 1980.
Indira and her party, Congress (I) campaigned on the slogan ‘Elect a Government That Works!’ and regained power.
Sanjay Gandhi was also elected to the Lok Sabha.
Unlike during the Emergency, when India registered significant economic and industrial progress, Indira’s return to power was hindered by a series of woes and tragedies, beginning with Sanjay’s death in June 1980 in an air crash.
Separatist forces in Punjab and in the north-east and the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan in December 1979 consumed her energy.
In May 1984, Sikh extremists occupied the Golden Temple in Amritsar, converting it into a heaven for terrorists. Indira responded in early June when she ordered Operation Bluestar, which killed and wounded hundreds of soldiers, insurgents, and civilians. Ultimately she was assasinated by her Sikh bodyguards on October 31, 1984.
